April 2020

Dear experts, we are having a project of aluminum heat exchangers with tube side MOC as aluminum SB 209. Here I want to make confirm the suitable filler wires for  TIG welding of Aluminium to SA 516 GR 60/70.
I saw your query on LinkedIn also.  Aluminum could be welded to steel a couple of ways, e.g friction stir welding, explosion bonding, not certainly by Arc Welding Process. Some of the problems are as stated below.
  • With respect to fusion, welding says, GTAW iron and aluminum are not compatible metals. Their melting temperatures differ greatly: 1220°F for aluminum vs. 2800°F for iron.
  • Both metals have almost no solubility for the other in the solid-state, especially iron in aluminum, and several brittle intermetallic phases can form (FeAl, Fe2A1, or FeAI3)'
  • Consequently, resultant fusion welds joining steel and aluminum would be extremely brittle. 

For the sake of fabrication, your only option would braze welding or brazing. However, for a heat exchanger, I have doubt if Sec-IX welding qualification criteria could be met for such a joint.

Aluminum to steel combination is popular in ships, as ship superstructure contains extensive  Aluminum alloys for the sake of weight reductions. Friction or explosion bonded inserts are used as intermediatory to facilitate GTAW  or GMAW. This is not the choice for process equipments e.g heat exchangers.

If the MOC aluminum on the tube side, then the preferred tube-sheet would be either Aluminum or C.S Tube sheet clad with Aluminum.

Wherever C.S# Aluminum welding may occur,  facilitate the design change for Aluminum to aluminum welding.

Thanks.

The fundamental difference between TOFD and PAUT is as follows:


TOFD
Excellent at detecting and sizing volumetric type indications (i.e. slag, porosity, etc) Good at detecting and sizing planer indications but is not always good at detecting and worst at sizing close to the surfaces. Sizing of defects with TOFD is problematic due to nature for which an indication is created by the sound wave. It can be used where there is a wall thickness transition at the weld.

PAUT or shear wave UT
OK at detecting and sizing volumetric indications. Typically the sizing is less accurate than TOFD unless the indication is large or a cluster and at an optimum orientation such that the round nature of volumetric indications does not deflection the UT wave. Excellent at detecting and sizing planer indications such as cracks, lack of fusion, incomplete penetration.

PAUT can also be set to target the surface region to detect indications that TOFD can not see and size. Typically not possible to use when there is a wall thickness transition at or close to the weld. The transition needs to be several inches from the weld.

There are advantages and disadvantages to each inspection method.  The method needs to be selected based on what type of indications are expected and targeted in the acceptance criteria.  Usually, both TOFD and shear wave UT (PAUT or multiprobe) are used together and both signals are analyzed to determine the type and size of the indications.  

That is a very short summary of the UT methods you asked about.  There are a lot more that needs to be considered and understood when applying either or both method.  That is especially the case regarding the method of which they are calibrated.

In either case, neither is better, they are just different.  One may be better for one situation and the other better in another situation.

Geoff Rogers
Welding Engineer
Houston, Texas


Magnetic Particle Testing

Magnetic particle testing is a non-destructive testing method for the detection of surface and subsurface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials.

Ferromagnetic materials are materials that can be magnetized to a level that will allow the inspection to be effective. They are Iron, Cobalt, Nickel and their magnetic alloys.
Magnetic particle testing can detect, surface and near-surface cracks seams, laps, cold shuts in castings lamination, lack of fusion near the surface, undercuts, deep scratches and fatigue cracks are indicated. Linear inclusions and porosity at or very near the surface may produce indications.

The technique uses the principle, that during the magnetization of a ferromagnetic material, magnetic lines of force [magnetic flux lines] pass-through this magnetically conducting medium. If the magnetic flux lines hit an area of different magnetic permeability such as a crack near the surface, a portion of these flux lines gets diverted and leak out above the surface of the material. A magnetic leakage field emerges from the part.

To show this leakage field, colored finely divided iron particles are sprayed to the area under examination. The leakage field attracts and accumulates some of these iron powder particles and essentially creates a powder caterpillar worm-like visual indication for the human eye. The indication is produced directly on the surface of the part and above the discontinuity.
There are variations in the way the magnetizing field is applied, but they are all dependant on the above principle. All surface and near-surface crack-like defects that produce a leakage field at the test surface can be detected. No elaborate precleaning is necessary, and surface defects filled with foreign material can be detected.

Characteristics of a discontinuity that enhances its detection are,
  • Its depth is at right angles to the surface
  • Width of the surface opening small so that the air gap created  
  • Is narrow
  • Its length at the surface is large with respect to its width
  • It is comparatively deep in proportion to the width of its opening.

In general, reliable detection requires that the width - depth - length dimensions of the discontinuities correspond to the ratio 1: 5:10. The lowest detection limits are a 1µm crack width, with a 10 µm depth of cut.

Optimum crack detection occurs when the magnetic flux lines flow at right - angles to the length of the defect. To form a detectable leakage field, the angle between the field direction and the expected defect’s length shall not be greater than 45°.

Disadvantages

It can be used only on ferromagnetic materials, has a certain application that requires large amounts of electrical current and requires the magnetic field to be properly oriented in relation to the discontinuities anticipated. Paint coatings and nonmagnetic coverings affect the sensitivity of examination. Demagnetization of the parts following examination may be required. Post cleaning to remove the magnetic particle materials from the test surface is required.

Detectability of Defects

Detectability depends on the formation of a strong leakage field which is dependent on surface opening of the discontinuity and its depth through the part thickness. A shallow surface scratch which may be as wide as it is deep usually does not produce an indication. If a crack is wide open at the surface, the reluctance of the air gap in the crack opening reduces the strength of the leakage field. This, combining with the inability of the particles to bridge the air gap, fails to form an indication. Laps emerge at an acute angle to the surface and a wide air gap is created between its lip and the part surface. The leakage field may be quite weak because very little leakage flux takes the path out through the surface lip of the lap to cross this high reluctance gap. If the faces of a crack are tightly forced together under compressive stress, the almost complete absence of an air gap may produce so little leakage field that no particle indication is formed.

The surface structure of a test piece has a significant influence on the detectability of defects. The surface cutting depth of a defect should be at least twice the associated surface roughness. Defect detectability can be further reduced by false indications arising from magnetic stray fields, accumulation of powder due to surface roughness, part configuration, scratches, scales, slots, etc. Cases can occur where It is difficult to generate the force required for a positive defect indication.

Surface irregularities and scratches can give misleading indications. Therefore, it is necessary to ensure careful preparation of the surface before magnetic particle testing is undertaken.

Detectability of Sub Surface Defects

Magnetic particle testing can detect near-surface discontinuities of favorable position and adequate size, but the possibility of an indication rapidly decreases when the discontinuity is more than 2 mm below the surface.

Detection sensitivity increases with an increase in magnetic field strength, but with very high field strength magnetic particles will be attracted to defect-free areas of the surface as well as to defects. The depth below the surface at which a sub-surface the defect may be detected is of the order of 3 to 7 mm when the direct current magnetization is used, but this will also depend on the size, shape, and orientation. Therefore, the deeper the discontinuity lies below the surface, the larger it must be to yield a readable indication and the more difficult the discontinuity is to find by this method.

Cracks below a non-magnetizable surface layer, up to 40 µm is detectable.

Welding electrode selection is a quite challenging decision because we need to consider many factors while choosing an electrode for a specific project/product. In this post, we discuss the factors which are responsible for choosing an electrode for Shielded Metal Arc Welding Process (SMAW) for carbon/manganese steels. The Shielded metal arc welding is also known as Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMAW). The electrodes for the SMAW/MMAW process are always covered by flux, therefore, known as covered electrodes or coated electrodes. Welding electrodes are identified by classification number (AWS Electrode Classification Number), it starts with E followed by either a four-digit number or a five-digit number such as E7018, E6010, E6013, E10018, etc.

Mandatory Classification Designators

The electrode classification numbers are not just for identification each letter and digit have a specific meaning; 
example: E7018
The alphabet ‘E’ stands for Electrode
First two digits (three digits in 5-digit electrodes) denotes the minimum tensile strength of deposited weld metal
In our case “70” means 70ksi (or 70000psi) tensile strength.
The third digit (fourth digit in 5-digit electrodes) indicates the welding position in which the electrode can be used.
In our case “1” means this electrode can be used in all weld positions.
The last two digit shows the flux composition, current type, and polarity of the electrode.
In our case “18” means basic flux (low hydrogen) current can be AC or DCEP (Alternate Current / Direct Current Electrode Positive)

Optional Supplemental Designators


We can find in the oil&gas industry an electrode may have additional numbers after it, a good example is "E8018-B2H4R".
In this case, the "B2" indicates the chemical composition of the weld metal deposit.
The "H4" is the diffusible hydrogen designator, which indicates the maximum diffusible hydrogen level obtained with the product is 4ml in 100g of deposited weld metal.
The "R" stands for the moisture-resistant designator to indicate the electrode's ability to meet specific low moisture pickup limits under controlled humidification tests

Before selecting an electrode as we discussed earlier, we need to consider the following factors which will affect the feasibility, quality, and cost of the product.

1. Parent Metal / Base metal2. Position of Weld3. Power Supply4. Preparation of Joints5. Weld Quality and Finish6. Cost of Weld (Must be as low as possible)


1. Parent Metal: Parent Metal or Base Metal is the most important among the above. The following three parameters of parent metal must be taken for consideration;
Mechanical properties: The mechanical properties especially the tensile strength of the parent metal and electrode should be similar or as close as possible. Extensive differences in tensile strength between the welding electrode and the base metal, there will always be chances of cracking and or other weld discontinuities. Hence to prevent cracking and other weld discontinuities we should choose an electrode having minimum tensile strength equivalent to the parent metal being welded. (The tensile strength of the welding electrode shall not be less than base metal)
Chemical Properties: The chemical properties shall also be checked before choosing an electrode. The electrode chemical composition should match the chemical composition of the base metal, especially the carbon percentage.

Thickness: Base metal thickness is very important while choosing an electrode. For thinner materials, an electrode with soft arc and less penetrating power can give good results but for thicker material we need and electrode with digging arc for deep penetration, maximum ductility and low hydrogen for defect-free welding.

We must always remember that the electrode size (diameter) should not exceed the thickness of the parent metal.

2. Welding Position: The second factor is the weld position. All electrode classifications are not suitable for all weld positions. Each electrode is meant for welding at some particular position. Therefore, we need to choose the electrode as per the position of our job. The welding position is specified in the electrode number itself. As explained above we will get a number from the electrode classification. Refer the number with below given general summary of the welding position table which is prepared based on AWS A5.1 Table 1. Electrode classification.
3. Power Supply: Based on the flux composition of electrodes current type and polarity varies electrode class to class. Some electrodes can be used with alternating Power (AC) supply, some can be used with direct current power (DC) supply and some can be used in both. Depending upon the available power supply (Welding Machine) we can choose the electrode. However, the welding machines are available various range of power supply such as AC, DC and AC/DC in the market.

When using Direct Current power supply, if the electrode is connected with the positive terminal of the machine then it is known as Direct Current Electrode Positive (DCEP) or Reverse Polarity and, if the electrode is connected with the negative terminal of the machine then it is known as Direct Current Electrode Negative (DCEN) or Straight Polarity.

The last two digit of an electrode classification number represents the current type, polarity as well as flux composition of the electrode. Please refer below table which is prepared based on AWS A5.1 Table 1 for a summary of the electrode, flux coating, current type, and polarity in which they can be used.

4. Joint Preparation: The fourth factor to be considered while selecting an electrode is the joint preparation or groove configuration. If there is a tight fit-up or unbevelled root face (square butt weld joint) then an electrode with a digging arc can be used, which can provide deeper penetration. Electrodes such as E6010 or E6011 can be used for this purpose. If there is sufficient root gap and root face (single or double “V” groove weld joint), then we can use electrodes which can give shallow to moderate penetration electrodes such as E6013 or E7018.

5. Welding Quality/Weld finish: The required quality and the weld finishing is also an important factor to be considered before selecting an electrode. Electrodes can be chosen depending upon the final finishing requirement for example Flat weld bead, concave weld bead or convex weld bead. The quality of the weld must suit the service requirements of the product. For example, to weld cryogenic vessel parts that are supposed to work at extremely low temperature and pressure with high impact loading or parts that are subjected to a corrosive atmosphere, we need a low hydrogen electrode such as E7018, which can produce very sound welding with higher ductility. So, the chances of getting any failure due to weld defects during operation will be minimized or can be eliminated. The below table gives a summary of commonly used welding electrodes features, which you may find useful while selecting an electrode for a specific project/product.
SMAW / MMAW Welding Electrodes, Flux composition, Current type, Polarity as per AWS 5.1 and Electrode features

6. Welding Cost: Cost is the most influenced factor in welding electrode selection. The electrode in which being to choose must fulfill the requirements of your project/product and at the same time, it must be cost-effective. We cannot choose the costly electrode for a low budget project. Similarly, for critical jobs where quality needs to be given the highest care a low hydrogen electrode with higher ductility such as E7018 can be considered.  Always keep in mind the term “fitness for purpose” also the quality means compliance with the minimum requirement of the product. So, don’t choose the highest electrode in the segment. Choose always “cheap and best”.

Tags: Welding Electrodes, Selection of Electrode, Consumables for SMAW, Consumables for MMA Welding, Stick Welding Electrodes, Welding Consumables

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